Rape and molestation an Example of the Topic Psychology Essays by

Rape and molestation There are different reasons that cause rape and violence in modern societies. Most of them lie in the belief that one has a right to control or punish someone, if he doesnt obey his rules or behavior habits. Thats why rape is considered to be an expression of iniquity in power relations between man and woman or homosexuals. The reason of the following inequality in power relationships cannot be generally considered to be the outcomes of the evolution or humans nature, but basically the societies that make woman a citizen of a second class. Need essay sample on "Rape and molestation" topic? We will write a custom essay sample specifically for you Proceed Our Customers Frequently Tell EssayLab professionals: Who wants to write essay for me? Specialists suggest: Professionals Are Creating Successful College Custom Essays! Best Essay Writing Service Reviews Buy Essay Online Cheap Best Essay Writing Service Good Essay Writing Company The problem of creating inequality and the social processes that follow social inequality are not have been studied deeply by the sociobiologists, and the best solution to the rape problem that they give is primary not to dress very attractively- and once again it looks like a method to control womans behavior. The understanding of the rape problem is very essential in our society and as the specialists say the main stress has to be made on changing the nature of relationships between men and women, whichs main task is to promote more equality between them two. Sociobiological explanation of rape is really nothing more than a science in the service of oppression. They point that men who are not successful in their life use rape to gain sexual access and compensate their stress as well as to show power. For the most of cases rape happens because as act of demonstration power not just the act of satisfying sexual desires and needs. Some sociolbiologists argue that men rape women to in order to pass their genes on the next generation. But still it makes a lot of questions, which Lisa Vevett covers in her article Why men rape? : For instance, if passing on their genes is the aim of rape, why do rapists attack the elderly, menopausal women and children? Why do men get raped? What of those women killed by rapists - they will never give birth. The researchers are incredibly ignorant about what happens during a rape. Some men do not ejaculate during rape and so do not deposit their semen inside the woman. This suggests that whatever is driving him to rape is not sexual arousal. Others ejaculate outside the woman. The claim that rapists are predominantly poor young men is also open to question. Certainly many young men convicted of rape are poor. Their convictions are more the result of their being unable to afford expensive lawyers who specialize in defending those accused of rape, than their greater. One of the rapists explained his personal reasons for such a behavior: "I was a comrade before. Then we were no longer given political tasks. Most of the tasks were given to senior people. I felt that we have been used by these senior comrades because I do not understand why they dumped us like this. Myself and six other guys decided to form our own organization that will keep these senior comrades busy all the time. We formed the South African Rapist Association (Sara). We rape women who need to be disciplined. They do not want to talk to most people. They think they know better than most of us and when we struggle, they do not want to join us" As the researches show there are lots of motives that result in raping and it creates definite and clear patterns of attacks. Every attack has its own patterns that depend on the motives of the rapist and the patterns of rape mainly include such kinds of rape as anger rape, power rape and sadistic rape. The article Patterns of Rape gives the full description of the most spread reasons for rape and gives the covering statistics to their distribution. Anger rape takes the second among the patterns of rape that happen nationwide (nearly 40 percent of all the cases). Anger rape is characterized by physical cruelty that is used by a rapist to Make his victim obey him. The offender experiences rage and anger and tries to express it on the victim in both ways physically and verbally during the act of attack. It can be expressed through his nasty and abusive manner of speaking. For such people anger rape is a means of offence, which they can commit against their victim. Those people cannot control themselves often when they experience anger and for them the weapon is sex and violence and the basic motive for such acts is revenge. The main purpose of the power rape is to gain control over the victim, not necessarily to make harm to the victim. The sexuality that a rapist feels is way to compensate his issues of mastery, control, strength and authority. Power rapists mostly give emphasis to verbal threats to the victim and just use the amount of power necessary to control the victim and to subdue the victim, not more. Its is considered that power rapes take the leading place in the statistics and cover nearly fifty five percent of all the cases countrywide. Power rapists have diverse fantasies about the sexual conquests and the rape itself. They mostly believe that their victim enjoys the rape even though that the victim can resists to have a sexual intercourse. It often happens that power rapists are convinced about the sexual pleasure got by their victims and can even ask their victims for a date later. Power rapists, are often sure about nothing wrong with their behavior, they may think it to be normal and as the result they can commit a number of rapes in a short period of time with different victims. The most rare type of rape and the one that will most likely cause death to victim is sadistic rape. Committing a sadistic rape, rapists get errection through brutal aggression, demonstration of anger and power to the victim. Sadistic rape is a result of 5 percent of all rapes countrywide. It often involves tortures and restrains and can even be some type of ritual or can have other violent and bizarre qualities. The injures that a rapist makes to victim are mainly focused on her sexual parts of the body, also rapists of this kind use foreign objects for penetration into victims body. The sadistic rapes are well planned and prepared. The rapist can have the idea of raping for quite a period of time making a full preparation for his future actions. The potential victims of the sadistic rape are often prostitutes as well as other women who dress very expressively. It often happens that victims do not survive after being raped and sometimes rapists get a further satisfaction by murdering the victim. Male rape has become of the urgent topic nowadays and it involves the events that happen not only prisons but in daily normal life as well: Many people believe that the majority of male rape occurs in prison; however, there is existing research which shatters this myth. A study of incarcerated and non-incarcerated male rape victims in Tennessee concluded that the similarities between these two groups would suggest that the sexual assault of men may not be due to conditions unique to a prison and that all men are potential victims (Lipscomb, Gary H. et al. (1992). "Male Victims of Sexual Assault." Journal of the American Medical Association, 267(22): 3064 - 3066.). Research indicates that the most common sites for male rape involving post-puberty victims are outdoors in remote areas and in automobiles (the latter usually involving hitchhikers). Boys in their early and mid-teens are more likely to be victimized than older males (studies indicate a median victim age of 17). The form of assault usually involves penetration of the victim anally and/or orally, rather than stimulation of the victim's penis. Gang rape is more common in cases involving male victims than those involving female victims. Also, multiple sexual acts are more likely to be demanded, weapons are more likely to be displayed and used, and physical injury is more likely to occur, with the injuries that do occur being more serious than with injured female rape victims. Besides rape violence that is usual among the adult, there exist a social problem of child molestation that is being widely discussed nowadays. Child molestation is a more serious problem from many perspectives than rape violence of adults. Because of the forming psychics of the child or a teenager molestation can result a deeper negative impact on his inner world and relations with the society than rape of an adult. An adult has more options to cope with any difficult situation, because of the previous life experience, while a child is not. The problems caused by rape and molestation in the younger age, can be the reasons of difficulties in sexual life in future and fear before the private relations, marriage and having children. Its a big trauma for childs personality, because nearly in all the cases the child keeps the truth about being molested inside of himself and very rare tells it to parents or other adults. Its basically because of the fears to be understood wrong, to be punished and judged. Its also believed that children who experience molestation are more likely to perceive sexual and private relations in abnormal form that can also cause psychological abnormalities and issues that will prevent a person from living a healthy and full life. It has been argued for a long time that homosexuals are more likely be involved in child molestation. But the statistics that is given by different sources is very controversial: Ann Landers says the statement "Homosexuals are more inclined to molest children sexually than heterosexuals" is false. The American Psychological Association has sponsored a work that asserts: "Recognized researchers in the field on child abuse... almost unanimously concur that homosexual people are actually less likely to approach children sexually." The report provided in the article Child Molestation and Homosexuality by Paul Cameron gives the following data: In 1983, a survey of the sexual experiences of 4,340 questioned adults from 5 different U.S. cities reported that about 3% of men and 7% of women had sexual contact with a man before they were 13 (i.e., 30% was homosexual). The survey of 3,132 adults, made in the year of 1983 in Los Angeles reported that 3.8% of men and 6.8% of women had been sexually assaulted while been kids. The survey reported that 93% of the assailants were male, and just 1% of girls had been assaulted by females. Also the report told that nearly 35% of the assaults were caused by homosexuals. The survey made Los Angeles Times in 1985 across the United States, quested nearly 2,700 adults about molestation cases that could take place in their life. Twenty seven percent of women and sixteen percent of man respectively said that they have been sexually molested. Since ninety three percent of boys and seven percent of girls were molested by the same sex adult molesters the survey calculated that 40 percent from the whole number of molestation cases was committed by homosexuals. In the recent survey made in the UK among the 15-19 year old teenagers, thirty five percent of boys and nine percent of girls confessed to have been bended for sexual contact by adult homosexuals, and two percent of boys and one percent of girls respectively, had sexual contact. The publication on the following theme made in 1980s also gave the evidence that from twenty five to forty percent of the cases of child molestation were homosexual acts. Besides the statistics of the molestation victims the article gives the following data about the number of homosexuals who admitted to have committed child molestation: The survey made in 1948 reported that thirty seven percent of gays and about two percent of lesbians agreed about having sexual contacts with teenagers who were under 17, and in addition twenty eight percent of gays and one percent of lesbians admitted that they had sex with underage partners while they themselves were eighteen or older. From the 565 gays, that answered to the survey made by Kinsey Institute in 1970 in San Francisco, 25 percent agreed to have sex with boys who were sixteen or younger when they themselves were older than twenty one. The Gay report gives nearly the same data: 23 percent of gays and 6 of lesbians had sexual relations with teens who were younger than sixteen. Susan Maree Jevons gives the following descriptions of the potential molester in her article Profile of a serial child molester: Child molester is more likely to: Have been abused as children themselves Be Sexually attracted to children (most can't or won't resist these urges) Find positions where children are available (leader of children's clubs, ministries, etc., coaches, camp counselors & chaperones, daycare centers, school positions, offers to babysit for friends & family, etc.) Seem to love children, children seem drawn to person Seek out women with children (or friends with children) Spend a lot of time with a child (not their own) Seem rigid, moral, a pillar of the community (too often accusations of abuse have not been believed because the person seemed to be too good, too outstanding to do such a thing Groom a child--create a special bond (this may involve giving child gifts, money, or even alcohol, or other 'forbidden' things that make it appear he is a special friend and creates atmosphere for secret keeping. Could also include playfully touching, tickling, etc., but moves toward inappropriate touch) Be an authoritarian or timid and unassertive Frequent places like video arcades Be addicted to child pornography Be uncomfortable in adult relationships (i.e., doesn't relate well, insecure) Have symptoms and after-effects of a survivor Deny or rationalize their behavior Be Manipulative Befriend single mothers in order to get to the children. They prey on the desperation of the woman who has no support system. They often sleep with the mother "Roughhouse" with children--tickling, slapping buttocks, etc.--and use this playful guise when they are in fact touching inappropriately Calling young teenage girls "sexy" or making other sexually suggestive comments ( available on web:http://www.suite101.com/article.cfm/child_abuse_and_recovery/33399) The basic problem of the modern society is that there is no obvious solution for the problem of rape cases. Rape and molestation cannot be totally prevented, but still much can be done to avoid some potential cases. As the psychologists tell woman have not to wear sexually attractive clothes, as well as to provoke men by their behavior. There is a lot that can be done to prevent child molestation. Basically the people who are involved in childcare and education have to be carefully examined by the psychologists and other specialists in order to reduce existing risks of molestation. Its important as well to include new trends in to education so that the children will be taught that its OK to talk about these issues with parents and/or school authorities. The best way to escape potential rape is to act reasonably to the situation and to never provoke violent behavior from the side of the potential rapist on purpose. Reference list: Vevett, Lisa Why men rape, Article Patterns of Rape, Article Male rape Information sheet, Rape Crisis center of Catawba county Sexual Molestation Causes, Consequences Protect Your Children from Molestation & Abduction, Article Jevons, Susan Maree Profile of a serial child molester, Article Basic Facts about Rape & Sexual Assault, Article, Georgia network to end sexual assault

Ice Break by Astrid Blodgett Essay Example

Ice Break by Astrid Blodgett Essay Example Ice Break by Astrid Blodgett Essay Ice Break by Astrid Blodgett Essay Ice Break by Astrid Blodgett is a short story of loss and rotten family-relations (and ice), written as two storylines, past and present, that don’t meet up until the very end. Dawn, the youngest of three siblings, is the only survivor after their car has crashed through the ice of Lake Wabamum. In the truck with Dawn is her Dad and youngest sibling, Janie. The story begins in present tense, with the point of no return. â€Å"We’re a long way out on the lake when the ice breaks†. Though it starts off like this, it could be argued that this is no in medias res. There is no tension, nor excitement. Just that statement – the ice breaks – and a beautiful, picturesque description of their surroundings. It’s rather unusual for present tense to be this â€Å"mellow†. Present tense is effective in building excitement and leading up to a climax. Blodgett used it to create the the opposite; she’s using present tense to emphasize how under whelmed and observant Dawn remains during her dad’s struggle for their lives. The past tense is used in the story to tell the tale of the morning before Dawn, Janie and their dad drove onto the lake. Until the last paragraph, the entire story takes place before noon in one day, which is not unusual for a short story. In the past tense, the relationships within the family are presented. And they are tense. This is hinted, by the repeated mention of the divorce of their neighbors, the Pichowskys. Marla, the oldest sibling says to Dawn, on page three, line 56: â€Å"I know something you don’t know†, and line 62: â€Å" Remember Mr. and Mra. Pichowsky down the street?† and then she leaves. Line 69, Dawn is thinking: â€Å"Mr. and Mrs. Pichowsky got a divorce last year and moved.† Dawn herself concludes, line 73: â€Å" Marla must mean that Mom and Dad were going to be like Mr. and Mrs. Pichowsky†. But it’s not just the relationship between the Mom and the Dad that’s rotten. Though they’re somehow tr

American History X

In this same scene he also shows views of white supremacy because he states that minorities come to America only to exploit it as opposed to establishing themselves as â€Å"model citizens†. As the movie progresses, it is established that Vineyard is part of an actual white supremacist organization known as the D. O. C. This is where the concept of ethnocentric beliefs is displayed. The group believes that whites are the supreme beings and that other minorities are at their feet. They believe that the government shows no concern for Americans that are down and out, but will rush to help out illegal immigrants. They carry out racist acts throughout the movie. The first one that they perform is the raiding of a grocery store. The D. O. C. enters the market and begins to beat any person of color insight while also screaming derogatory statements. This is followed by a dinner scene where another character tries to bring reason to high criminal rates of African Americans as social inequalities. This scene highlights more racism in that Vineyard is trying to validate his thoughts that the black race are naturally criminals, but he is quickly shot down by people around the table who are able to refute his claims. It eventually escalates and he attacks his own sister. This is the first scene that also displays his anti-Semitic views. It was clear that he did indeed have them by having swastikas tattooed on him, but he verbally assaults a Jewish man with derogatory terms and stereotypes. The most important sociological concept is primary socialization. This is what is at the root of the main characters whole being. This is essentially what helped spark the views and hatred that he had developed. The father is sitting at the same dinner table as seen in a previous scene as he begins to show his prejudice views. The father first starts out by referring to affirmative action as â€Å"affirmative blacktion†. He also warns his son not to swallow everything this black teacher is teaching him. He eventually wraps the conversation up by referring to it as â€Å"Nigger Bullshit† and forewarning him to be careful. This is the most significant scene because the concept of primary socialization is seen in full effect. For the film American History X, there is no clear protagonist or antagonist because the character goes through a transformation throughout the film. He begins the story as the antagonist, but later reforms himself to a more protagonist type character. Due to this transformation, the antagonist would have to be the head of the D. O. C. This is because he is exploiting the youth and pushing his views on to them. He capitalizes on kids who struggle and living unhappily by placing blame on minorities. He teaches them white supremacy and makes claims that minorities have to be dealt with accordingly. Now he doesn’t call for any drastic action, but by creating prejudice within teens will only end in an extremist type individual. The reason why I feel that the main character, Vineyard, is the protagonist is because after jail he tries to right his wrongs. He tries to make his brother see that the life he had once lead was not right and at the same time formally tells the leader that he wants no part of the organization anymore. Granted he once was the antagonist, but the plot sets up a battle within the character. He chose to change his ways as he served time and rid himself of the racist views that he once preached. This film is beneficial and could be used for educational purposes. This is because it shows that preconceived notions can eventually disappear. Views of prejudice and hatred can be absolved and a person does not have to continue down the road they once went. It can help educate the youth by showing them how easily it is to be influenced and the consequences of accepting views pushed on you. It will help people become more independent and free thinkers.

Final paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Final paper - Essay Example Adhering to a tradition that is historicary and theologically interconnected to two other religions means to stick to something common among all religions, as all of them believe in the existence of only one God The Jews use the Hebrew bible as their canon, the canon contains the story and the portrayals of Abraham Jews refer to Abraham as Abram, which later changed to Abraham after the making of the covenant, in the canon Abraham is the son of Terah, husband to Sarah and father to Isaac. In Judaism, sticking to the Abraham tradition is because of his obedience in God and the faith he had in God, Abraham was righteous. The covenant he made with God, which is to make him the father of all nations with circumcision as the physical evidence to show all his descendants, is also very important in Judaism. Abraham was a man full of faith and obedience, when God called Abraham and instructed him to leave his home Haran to go to an identified destination Abraham obeyed and left, God however made a covenant with Abraham used up to date by the Jews . The covenant between God and Abraham was that of giving him many descendants, as the stars in heaven, that is from Abraham a great nation would emerge that would greatly benefit human kind. Despite the fact that Abraham and Sarah and no children, Abraham had faith in God that he would fulfil his promise by giving him a son Jews view circumcision very important up to date, they believe that for all the descendants of Abraham circumcision should be necessary just as the Hebrew bible states that the covenant is everlasting to all the descendants of Abraham. Judaism religion is guided by the covenant in which the followers believe to have emerged; this brings to the religion the meaning of Abraham in their teachings. Jews also have the believe in the faith and the obedience that Abraham had in the almighty God. Even with all the doubt that Sarah

Family and egalitrarian partnership with a family nurse Essay

Family and egalitrarian partnership with a family nurse - Essay Example The family also comprises of various individuals with dissimilar personalities; hence, uniqueness of each household. In the research study compiled by Bell (2009), family therapy by an egalitarian nurse is one that is aimed at sustaining and promoting health to those suffering from particular infections. This is an suggestion that family therapy is one that makes sure the broad well being of the family is put under examination as well as proviso of maintenance skills on a long term basis. On another viewpoint, it would be reasonable to indicate that some family conditions may be a simpler sign of what the entire family goes through. Dealing with the infection on an individual perspective, in this case, is an indication that the syndrome is dealt with on behalf of the family, which is not obliging. This explains why there is need to deal with the infection on the family level not the person, which is only possible through the help of an egalitarian family nurse. Services offered by a family nurse can, therefore, be indicated to break the sequence of recurrence of various conditions in the individuals. As a result, family nurses offer proper assessment and handling of family infections, a feature which reduces the effects of an individual affecting the entire family. A good example would be psychotherapy on one person in the family who is diabetic. Certainly, the whole family benefits if therapy is administered effectively by the family nurse. This essay shall aim at emphasizing that families are in the best position to decide their own health goals and to accomplish them through identifying and further developing their potency as an egalitarian partner with a family nurse. This means that the family members are free and are not restricted to inquire or interact with the nurse regarding their medical condition. Fundamentally, this work shall focus on bringing out the view that family nurses have been of huge benefit in dealing with family infections. Body In the argument by Bell (2009), family nurses have a chance to proficiently assess the family as a unit. The care offered at the family level has been termed as one that targets all the participants in the family unit, which is inclusive of the members of the family, the whole family and the cultural systems that surround the relations (Bomar, 2004). An analysis of these structural systems that surround the family, a democratic relationship between the family and the family nurse allows for open interaction in the course of offering medical help; and consequently, possibility for appropriate health interventions. The family, can in this instance, be interpreted as a complex unit that needs long-term intervention. On another point of view, Bell (2009) emphasizes that the relationship between the family nurse and the family members becomes a collaborative one, since the nurse believes in the legitimacy of the structural component of the family. The kind of therapy that is being offered by th is clinician at this moment is one that is directed towards ensuring the family becomes competent in administering the therapy proposed, as opposed to the general care that is more directed to pathology (Bell, 2009). Additionally, the family members feel that the nurse and the family members believe that information on the family is in safe hands, hence respect between the two parties (Bell, 2009). Confidence in the family nurse is reinstated as the family members

Cleanliness is Next to Goldenness Essay Example for Free

Cleanliness is Next to Goldenness Essay Each fall thousands of high school graduates, enter their next phase of life, the college phase. Arriving on campus filled with excitement and waiting for all the hectic college experiences. Finding classrooms, ordering books, late night studying, parties and sleeping in till three in the afternoon. The freedom is nice. A large part of college students are busy doing homework and socializing with others, and don’t have enough time to clean their living environment. By creating a time schedule in which each roommate can clean a certain area in the dorm will overall enhance a healthier living quarters. After the acceptance into a college or university, the next relative question would be, â€Å"Who will my roommate be?† and â€Å"What he/she will be like!† As cited by Romos and Torgler, â€Å"Specifically, when academics see that other academics have violated the social norm of keeping the common room clean, all else being equal, the probability of their littering increases by around 40%† (Romos, J., Torgler, B., 2013). An unclean living area could result in, â€Å"Clutter or filth, clutter can collect dirt, provide a hiding spot for pests, and can cause trips or falls† (National Center for Healthy Housing, n.p.). People would think that everyone’s natural instincts is to pick up after themselves when they see clothes on the floor, dirty dishes in the sink, or a carpet that needs to be vacuumed. But never the less, studies show if one person in the home is careless about his or her things, the opposite person will eventually adapt the careless ro utine. Another viewpoint that could be taking into perspective is, probably the student is to busy to clean, or perhaps their parents cleaned their surrounding for them. Being the bigger person in this type of situation by just cleaning up after them could potentially create an environment of cleanliness and the careless person will catch on. Although, having a dorm room to call your own isnt quite what it’s made up to be. It is in fact ‘your room’. However, students should be mindful that they are sharing their living quarters with others. Bliss stated that, †We came to feel that students really ought to take more responsibility for their own space† (as cited in Chronicle of Higher Education, 1999).  Adjusting to college, sharing a room, living room and sometimes a kitchen can be deceiving. One thing about being apart of the dorm lifestyle is sharing your space. Within that space is your belongings as well as two or more peoples belongings. And by just being in control of your own personal belongings can in the long run result in a more organized environment. Granted, you may have a very heavy schedule, adapting to college could be overwhelming and stressful. You may not have much time to pick up after yourself or clean your surroundings. Be mindful, if your roommate has an unorganized s pace and your side is kept up neatly, do not alter your habits for someone else. If this situation accrues, I highly suggest to sit down with all your roommates to discuss who and when everyone should clean the dorm. Thus, gives you and your roommates the opportunity to vent their opinions as will as solve any miscommunication problems. Becoming an adult can be life changing, there is more things in life that you are responsible for, as stated by Kurtus, â€Å"A person who has a reputation of being responsible is trusted to do things on his or her own, without supervision† (Kurtus , 2001). Taking full responsibility and owning up to all the mishaps that go on in your dorm is vary important. Being irresponsible can lead to a dysfunctional living area and can potentially lead your other friends not wanted to come over, because it’s dirty, unorganized or just filled with clutter. Sharing the responsibility of your room, living room, bathroom and perhaps the kitchen, can ultimately change the way you and your roommates work together. Creating a schedule that can be posted on the wall for everyone to read, with a helpful layout of who and when each roommate will clean a certain area in the dorm. This schedule will effectively mold a healthier and cleaner environment as the semester or year goes. This will c reate an overall respect, responsibility, self control and comfort knowing that the dorm is kept up and clean. Me and my three other roommates personally created a flexible schedule that helped each one of us. Within the first week of school, we sat down and figured out our class schedule and a preferred time frame that everyone was comfortable with. Every two days someone for example, was in charge of the bathroom, and living room. Along with those responsibilities also came with  taking personal care of your bed side such as, picking clothes off the floor, an organized work area and a straighten bed. With my previous personal experience, I came to the conclusion that having a schedule in place makes a huge difference, compared to when I go into another dorm with four other girls and they do not have a schedule. I tend to notice that if there is no schedule in place, the roommates just live day by day lives, without thinking to clean. â€Å"The messy room is emblematic, a strident statement. Feeling entitled to live on his or her own, more independent, â€Å"Its my space, its my decision, its my life† (Pickhardt, 2012). Everyone makes their own decisions, either good or bad. Whether or not it’s choosing to clean, organize or just leave your area dirty, it’s totally up to you. However it will result in major consequences that will effect you in the long run. Affectively, keeping your area clean can create great habits that you will continue to follow in the future. References Chronicle of Higher Education. (1999). Can somebody at least do my laundry?. Chronicle of Higher Education, 46(11), n.p. (no doi or database) Kurtus, R. (2001, April 18). Being responsible shows character. Retrieved from http://www.school-for-champions.com/character/responsible.htm National Center for Healthy Housing. (n.p.). Healthy homes. Retrieved from http://health.nv.gov/Healthy%20Homes/HH_Resource_Booklet.pdf Pickhardt, C. (2012). The messy room. Retrieved from http://www.netplaces.com/positive-discipline/supervision-the-second-factor/the-messy-room.htm Romos, J., Torgler, B. . (2013). Are academics messy? testing the broken windows theory with a field experiment in the work environment. Review Of Law Economics, 8(2), 563-574. doi: 10.1515/1555-5879.1617 Willoughby, B. J., Carroll, J. S. (2009). The impact of living in co-ed resident halls on risk-taking among college students. Journal Of American College Health, 58(3), 241-246. Retrieved from SPORTDiscus with Full Text.

Analysis of Robert Frosts Poem, Departmental Essay -- Poetry Robert F

Analysis of Robert Frost's Poem, Departmental â€Å"Departmental† by Robert Frost is a poem written in rhymed couplets with three beats per line (trimeter). Throughout the poem, Frost uses poetic devices such as personification, allusion, rhyme, and alliteration. The poem as a whole serves as a metaphor for the way humans deal with issues like death.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The poem begins with a description of a scene familiar to many, â€Å"an ant on a tablecloth†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Then the ant bumps into a day drowsy moth that is much larger than him. The ant seems a tad bit jealous that the moth lacks the amount of responsibility that ants are burdened with. The ant thinks that if the moth were one of his own race he’d chastise him and send him back to work. He describes how the ant society is much more sophisticated and intellectual than the likes of the moth. Their philosophy is to learn about religion, nature, and space. The ant then being concerned with his own duties hurries back to his own job. The ant subsequently runs into another ant carrying â€Å"the body of one of their dead.† The poem goes on to describe the ants’ treatment and procedures of the dead. The ants are not taken aback by the death â€Å"†¦ isn’t even given a moment’s arrest, seems not even impressed.† However, wo rd of the deceased is passed along among the ants, â€Å"death has come to Jerry McCormick.† They reflect briefly on the life of Jerry, mentioning that he was a â€Å"selfless forager.† The dutiful priorities of the ants then kick in when they put o...

Ecommerce in Bangladesh Essay

1. Introduction When Electronic commerce, commonly known as ‘ecommerce’, is the buying and selling of products or services over electronic systems such as the Internet and other computer networks. Electronic commerce draws on such technologies as electronic funds transfer, supply chain management, Internet marketing, online transaction processing, electronic data interchange (EDI), inventory management systems, and automated data collection systems. Modern electronic commerce typically uses the at least at one point in the transaction’s life-cycle, although it may encompass a wider range of technologies such as email, mobile devices and telephones as well. Electronic commerce is generally considered to be the sales aspect of ebusiness [1]. It also consists of the exchange of data to facilitate the financing and payment aspects of business transactions. E-commerce can be divided into: i. E-tailing or â€Å"virtual storefronts† on Web sites with online catalogs, sometimes ga thered into a â€Å"virtual mall† ii. The gathering and use of demographic data through Web contacts iii. Electronic Data Interchange (EDI), the business-tobusiness exchange of data iv. E-mail and fax and their use as media for reaching prospects and established customers (for example, with newsletters) v. Business-to-business buying and selling vi. The security of business transactions The main areas of e-commerce are following: i. Business to Business (B2B) ii. Business to Consumer (B2C) iii. Business to Government (B2G) iv. Government to Business (G2B) 2. Objectives Our objectives are following: i. To define e-commerce and describe how it differs from ebusiness. ii. To identify and describe the unique features of ecommerce technology and discuss their business significance. iii. To describe the major types of e-commerce. iv. To discuss the origins and growth of e-commerce. v. To explain the evolution of e-commerce from its early years to today. vi. To identify the factors that will define the future of ecommerce. vii. To describe the major themes underlying the study of ecommerce. viii. To identify the major academic disciplines contributing to e-commerce and understand design of an e-commerce engine ix. To identify the opportunity and problem of e-commerce implementation in Bangladesh. x. To identify the future of e-commerce. Volume 2 Issue 2, February 2013 www.ijsr.net 150 International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), India Online ISSN: 2319-7064 3. E-Commerce in Bangladesh In Bangladesh there is a limited application and use of B2C e-commerce .This field is not yet much developed in Bangladesh. There are many reasons behind it one simple reason this country is not so developed and most of its citizens are poor and uneducated. It is quit natural that there are few customers who is willing and can shop in internet. It will take years to be developed this sector in bd. The telecommunication infrastructure any country affect the Internet services directly, cause it is largely depended on it. In this chapter Define Need for e-commerce in Bangladesh, different sector in Bangladesh, overview of implementation stage of e-commerce in Bangladesh. And there is some problem such as: low internet speed, no payment gateway and internet range, and recommendation. 3.1 Need for E-commerce in Bangladesh With the increasing diffusion of ICTs, more specifically t he Internet, the global business community is rapidly moving towards Business-to-Business (B2B) e-commerce. The buyers/ importers gain a clear advantage when the Internet gives them access to the global market, by which they can compare prices across regions, find out whether prices vary by order fragmentation, get awareness about substitute/ alternative products. Consequently, the sellers/ exporters make sure that they are well portrayed in the cyber world through websites and portals. Like buyers, sellers also benefit from increased and more efficient access to the global market through the Internet. Bangladesh is pursuing an economic policy of export-led growth. With the rising forces of globalization, it is becoming increasingly important that the private sector, particularly the export sectors are well prepared to meet the requirements and expectations of the importers and also stand out in the competition against exporters in other countries. In such a scenario, two issues are becoming particularly important for Bangladeshi export sectors –one, whether businesses are automating their internal processes with these of ICTs to become increasingly efficient and competitive in a global context, and two, whether businesses have effective presence and participation in the cyber world. International organizations such as UNCTAD (United Nations Center for Trade and Development) and WTO (World Trade Organization) [2] have, over the last several years, put much emphasis on the importance of e-commerce for developing countries. UNCTAD has special programs to facilitate developing countries to transition into e-commerce. The WTO has also develo ped rules and guidelines for global e-commerce transactions. 3.2 E-commerce in Different Sector in Bangladesh Despite being a under developed country, selected segments of the Bangladeshi business community has embraced technology with reasonable success. Personal computers and the Internet are also emerging as day-to-day business tools. These positive indicators are favoring the prospects of e-commerce in Bangladesh. i. RMG Sector ii. Banking on the Web (Online Banking) iii. Online Shopping iv. Web Hosting, Domain v. Online cards, gifts vi. Pay Bill 3.3 The Existing Situation and Potential of E-commerce in Bangladesh Internet services are presently available in Bangladesh. Its usage for e-commerce by the Bangladeshi producers to export as well as to access inputs will be dependent on their willingness and ability to use this medium as well as that of the buyers of final products and the sellers of intermediate goods and services. Figure 1 depicts the three dimensions of e-commerce. Business to-Consumers (B2C) e-commerce is practically non-existent within Bangladesh, while a very limited level of Business-to-Business (B2B) and Businessto-Government (B2G) transactions exists [3]. The potential for use of e-commerce by Bangladeshi consumers and businesses with foreign firms is much brighter, and can play an important role in boosting the country’s exports. A significant volume of B2G is also possible, as the government remains the biggest spender. Figure 1. The Three Dimensions of E-commerce 3.4 E-commerce growth in Bangladesh E-commerce growth in Bangladesh shown in figure 3.2 in the year of 2000 e-commerce business is 11440 million taka. In the years of 2001 business of e-commerce is 15840 million taka and increase year by year 2002 business is 18980 million taka 2002 to 2004 businesses is not very fast but in the year of 2005 business of e-commerce is 22480 and end the year of 2006 business of e-commerce growth is 252000 million taka. Figure 2. E-commerce growth in Bangladesh 4. Methodologies The methodologies of our survey are given below: 4.1 Identification of scope of study 151 Volume 2 Issue 2, February 2013 www.ijsr.net International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), India Online ISSN: 2319-7064 To accomplish the project objectives, a systematic process is followed. The project process begins with the identification of the project topic where studies was carried out to obtain enough information on the topic. 4.2 Group discussions to collect suggestions on the survey of e-commerce system Discuss with group member about the topic and collect their suggestions on this topic. Also discuss impacts of ecommerce in our society and business and barriers ecommerce in different sectors in Bangladesh and the future of e-commerce system. 4.3 E-commerce site visits as clients Some e-commerce websites visits were made as clients. We visited websites like www.ebay.com, browsed many products, added product to shopping cart, created user account and observed the check out process. We also examined their user interface, front end design and various category of product. We searched products by different types, t he product names and the company name. 4.4 Internet search to collect data on e-commerce growth world wide We searched the internet to collect data on e-commerce business growth based on time, data on e-commerce revenue based on geographic locations. We also collected data about e-commerce business growth and present situation of ecommerce in Bangladesh. 4.5 Architecture and code review of e-commerce site We reviewed the main technologies involved in ecommerce site, which include php sessions, catalog technology, server technology (hardware and software). We also reviewed credit card transaction and shopping cart checkout process. 4.6 Interviews to find what people think about ecommerce We interviewed people from various sections of the society to find out what they think about e-commerce and what changes they needed. We also discussed with them what the advantages and disadvantages of e-commerce systems are. 4.7 Introducing intentional change to understand ecommerce engine We downloaded e-commerce site code and changed the catalog of product, banner, product detail, product image, and increase and decrease number of product show in the main page also changed the theme of e-commerce site. We entered new products and removed selling product and updated the products. 5.1 Architecture This is the design of front-end design shown in Figure 3. There is a one home page, wish list, acco unt, shopping cart, and product list and checkout option. Figure 3. E-commerce site front end design 5.2 Database Structure 5.2.1 E-R Diagram A sample entity–relationship diagram using Chen’s notation is shown in Figure 4. 5. Technical Design of E-Commerce Site The technical design of e-commerce site include database structure, database schema, table structure, php session, shopping cart, e-r diagram, and credit card transaction. Figure 4. A sample entity–relationship diagram using Chen’s notation In software engineering, an entity–relationship model (ER model for short) is an abstract [4] and conceptual representation of data. Entity–relationship modeling is a database modeling method, used to produce a type of conceptual schema or semantic data model of a system, often 152 Volume 2 Issue 2, February 2013 www.ijsr.net International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), India Online ISSN: 2319-7064 a relational database, and its requirements in a top-down fashion. Diagrams created by this process are called entity– relationship diagrams or ER diagrams. Using the three schema approach to software engineering, there are three levels of ER models that may be developed. The conceptual data model is the highest level ER model in that it contains the least granular detail but establishes the overall scope of what is to be included within the model set. The conceptual ER model normally defines master reference data entities that are commonly used by the organization. Developing an enterprise-wide conceptual ER model is useful to support documenting the data architecture for an organization. A conceptual ER model may be used as the foundation for one or more logical data models. The purpose of the conceptual ER model is then to establish structural metadata commonality for the master data entities between the set of logical ER models. The conceptual data model may be used to form commonality relationships between ER models as a basis for data m odel integration. A logical ER model does not require a conceptual ER model especially if the scope of the logical ER model is to develop a single disparate information system. The logical ER model contains more detail than the conceptual ER model. In addition to master data entities, operational and transactional data entities are now defined [5]. The details of each data entity are developed and the entity relationships between these data entities are established. The logical ER model is however developed independent of technology into which it will be implemented. One or more physical ER models may be developed from each logical ER model. The physical ER model is normally developed be instantiated as a database. Therefore, each physical ER model must contain enough detail to produce a database and each physical ER model is technology dependent since each database management system is somewhat different. The physical model is normally forward engineered to instantiate the structur al metadata into a database management system as relational database objects such as database tables, database indexes such as unique key indexes, and database constraints such as a foreign key constraint or a commonality constraint. The ER model is also normally used to design modifications to the relational database objects and to maintain the structural metadata of the database. The first stage of information system design uses these models during the requirements analysis to describe information needs or the type of information that is to be stored in a database. The data modeling technique can be used to describe any ontology (i.e. an overview and classifications of used terms and their relationships) for a certain area of interest. In the case of the design of an information system that is based on a database, the conceptual data model is, at a later stage (usually called logical design), mapped to a logical data model, such as the relational model; this in turn is mapped to a physical model during physical design. 5.2.2 The Building Blocks: Entities, Relationships, and Attributes The building blocks: entities, relationships, and attributes as shown in Figure 5, first here two related entities then an entity with an attribute next in this figure a relationship with and attribute and finally see primary key. Figure 5. The building blocks: entities, relationships, and attributes An entity may be defined as a thing which is recognized as being capable of an independent existence and which can be uniquely identified. An entity is an abstraction from the complexities of some domain. When we speak of an entity we normally speak of some aspect of the real world which can be distinguished from other aspects of the real world. An entity may be a physical object such as a house or a car, an event such as a house sale or a car service, or a concept such as a customer transaction or order. Although the term entity is the one most commonly used, following Chen we should really distinguish between an entity and an entity-type. An entity-type is a category. An entity, strictly speaking, is an instance of a given entity-type. There are usually many instances of an entity-type. Because the term entity-type is somewhat cumbersome, most people tend to use the term entity as a synonym for this term. Entiti es can be thought of as nouns. Examples: a computer, an employee, a song, a mathematical theorem. A relationship captures how entities are related to one another. Relationships can be thought of as verbs, linking two or more nouns. Examples: owns relationship between a company and a computer, supervises relationship between an employee and a department [6], performs relationship between an artist and a song, a proved relationship between a mathematician and a theorem. The model’s linguistic aspect described above is utilized in Volume 2 Issue 2, February 2013 www.ijsr.net 153 International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), India Online ISSN: 2319-7064 the declarative database query language ERROL, which mimics natural language, constructs. ERROL’s semantics and implementation are based on Reshaped relational algebra (RRA), a relational algebra which is adapted to the entity–relationship model and captures its linguistic aspect. Entities and relationships can both have attributes. Examples: an employee entity might have a Social Security Number (SSN) attribute; the proved relationship may have a date attribute. Every entity (unless it is a weak entity) must have a minimal set of uniquely identifying attributes, which is called the entity’s primary key. Entity–relationship diagrams don’t show single entities or single instances of relations. Rather, they show entity sets and relationship sets. Example: a particular song is an entity. The collection of all songs in a database is an entity set. The eaten relationship b etween a child and her lunch is a single relationship. The set of all such child-lunch relationships in a database is a relationship set. In other words, a relationship set corresponds to a relation in mathematics, while a relationship corresponds to a member of the relation. 5.2.3Relationships, Roles and Cardinalities In Chen’s original paper he gives an example of a relationship and its roles. He describes a relationship â€Å"marriage† and its two roles â€Å"husband† and â€Å"wife†. A person plays the role of husband in a marriage (relationship) and another person plays the role of wife in the (same) marriage. These words are nouns. That is no surprise; naming things requires a noun. However as is quite usual with new ideas, many eagerly appropriated the new terminology but then applied it to their own old ideas. Thus the lines, arrows and crows-feet of their diagrams owed more to the earlier Bachman diagrams than to Chen’s relationship diamon ds. And they similarly misunderstood other important concepts. In particular, it became fashionable (now almost to the point of exclusivity) to â€Å"name† relationships and roles as verbs or phrases. 5.2.4 Limitations ER models assume information content that can readily be represented in a relational database. They describe only a relational structure for this information. Hence, they are inadequate for systems in which the information cannot readily be represented in relational form, such as with semistructured data. Furthermore, for many systems, the possible changes to the information contained are nontrivial and important enough to warrant explicit specification. Some authors have extended ER modeling with constructs to represent change, an approach supported by the original author; an example is Anchor Modeling. An alternative is to model change separately, using a process modeling technique. Additional techniques can be used for other aspects of systems. For instance, ER models roughly Figure 6. E-R modeling 5.3 Table Structure In relational databases and flat file databases, a table is a set of data elements (values) that is organized using a model of vertical columns (which are identified by their name) and horizontal rows, the cell being the unit where a row and column intersect. A table has a specified number of columns, but can have any number of rows each row is identified by the values appearing in a particular column subset which has been identified as a unique key index. Table is another term for relations; although there is the difference in that a table is usually a multi-set (bag) of rows whereas a relation is a set and does not allow duplicates. Besides the actual data rows, tables generally have associated with them some meta-information, such as constraints on the table or on the values within particular columns. The data in a table does not have to be physically stored in the database. Views are also relational tables, but 154 correspond to just 1 of the 14 different modeling techniques offered by UML. Another limitation: ER modeling is aimed at specifying information from scratch. This suits the design of new, standalone information systems, but is of less help in integrating pre-existing information sources that already define their own data representations in detail. Even where it is suitable in principle, ER modeling is rarely used as a separate activity. One reason for this is today’s abundance of tools to support diagramming and other design support directly on relational database management systems. These tools can readily extract database diagrams that are very close to ER diagrams from existing databases, and they provide alternative views on the information contained in such diagrams. In a survey, Brodie [7] and Liu could not find a single instance of entity–relationship modeling inside a sample of ten Fortune 100 companies. Badia and Lemire blame this lack of use on the lack of guidance but also on the lack of benefits, such as lack of support for data integration. Also, the enhanced entity–relationship model (EER modeling) introduces several concepts which are not present in ER modeling. ER modeling as shown in Figure 6. Volume 2 Issue 2, February 2013 www.ijsr.net International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), India Online ISSN: 2319-7064 their data are calculated at query time. Another example is nicknames, which represent a pointer to a table in another database. 5.4 Database Schema A database schema of a database system is its structure described in a formal language supported by the database management system (DBMS) and refers to the organization of data to create a blueprint of how a database will be constructed (divided into database tables). The formal definition of database schema is a set of formulas (sentences) called integrity constraints imposed on a database. These integrity constraints ensure compatibility between parts of the schema. All constraints are expressible in the same language. A database can be considered a structure in realization of the database language. The states of a created conceptual schema are transformed into an explicit mapping, the database schema. This describes how real world entities are modeled i n the database. â€Å"A database schema specifies, based on the database administrator’s knowledge of possible applications, the facts that can enter the database, or those of interest to the possible end-users.† The notion of a database schema plays the same role as the notion of theory in predicate calculus. A model of this â€Å"theory† closely corresponds to a database, which can be seen at any instant of time as a mathematical object. Thus a schema can contain formulas representing integrity constraints specifically for an application and the constraints specifically for a type of database, all expressed in the same database language. In a relational database [8], the schema defines the tables, fields, relationships, views, indexes, packages, procedures, functions, queues, triggers, types, sequences, materialized views, synonyms, database links, directories, Java, XML schemas, and other elements. Schemas are generally stored in a data dictionary. Although a schema is defined in text database language, the term is often used to refer to a graphical depiction of the database structure. In other words, schema is the structure of the database that defines the objects in the database. In an Oracle Database system, the term â€Å"schema† has a slightly different connotation. For the interpretation used in an Oracle Database, see schema object. 5.5 Levels of Database Schema A conceptual schema or conceptual data model is a map of concepts and their relationships. This describes the semantics of an organization and represents a series of assertions about its nature. Specifically, it describes the things of significance to an organization (entity classes), about which it is inclined to collect information, and characteristics of (attributes) and associations between pairs of those things of significance (relationships). Figure 7. Conceptual schema or conceptual data model A logical schema is an alias that allows a unique name to be given to all the physical schemas containing the same data store structures. The aim of the logical schema is to ensure the portability of the procedures and models on the different physical schemas. In this way, all developments in Designer are carried out exclusively on logical schemas. A logical schema can have one or more physical implementations on separate physical schemas, but they must be based on data servers of the same technology. A logical schema is always directly linked to a technology. To be usable, a logical schema must be declared in a context. Declaring a logical schema in a context consists of indicating which physical schema corresponds to the alias – logical schema – for this context. For example: The logical schema LEDGER is the set of Sybase tables required for the functioning of the accounting application. These tables are stored in a physical schema for each installation of the accounting application. Work in Designer or Operator is always done on the logical schema LEDGER. Only the context allows the physical schema on which the operations are actually done to be determined. Thus, the user can switch from one physical environment to another in a single action. A logical schema’s example is shown in figure 8. Table 1: Name of the logical schema Name of the logical schema LEDGER LEDGER LEDGER Context Boston Seattle Production Seattle Test Physical Schema Sybase Boston LDG Sybase SEATTLE PROD LDG Sybase SEATTLE TEST LDG Volume 2 Issue 2, February 2013 www.ijsr.net 155 International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), India Online ISSN: 2319-7064 This article discusses the Oracle use of the term. For other uses of â€Å"schema† in a database context, such as a graphical representation of tables and other objects in a database, see database schema. In an Oracle database, associated with each database user is a schema. A schema comprises a collection of schema objects. Examples of schema objects include: tables, views, sequences, synonyms, indexes, clusters, database links, snapshots, procedures, functions and packages. Figure 8. Logical schemas Physical schema is a term used in data management to describe how data is to be represented and stored (files, indices, et al.) in secondary storage using a particular database management system (DBMS) (e.g., Oracle RDBMS, Sybase SQL Server, etc.). The logical schema was the way data were represented to conform to the constraints of a particular approach to database management. At that time the choices were hierarchical and network. Describing the logical schema, however, still did not describe how physically data would be stored on disk drives. That is the domain of the physical schema. Now logical schemas describe data in terms of relational tables and columns, object-oriented classes, and XML tags. A single set of tables, for example, can be implemented in numerous ways, up to and including an architecture where table rows are maintained on computers in different countries. Figure 10. Schema objects 5.6 Php Sessions A PHP session variable is used to store information about, or change settings for a user session. Session variables hold information about one single user, and are available to all pages in one application [9]. When you are working with an application, you open it, do some changes and then you close it. This is much like a Session. The computer knows who you are. It knows when you start the application and when you end. But on the internet there is one problem: the web server does not know who you are and what you do because the HTTP address doesn’t maintain state. A PHP session solves this problem by allowing you to store user information on the server for later use (i.e. username, shopping items, etc). However, session information is temporary and will be deleted after the user has left the website. If you need a permanent storage you may want to store the data in a database. Sessions work by creating a unique id (UID) for each visitor and store variables based on this UID. The UID is either stored in a cookie or is propagated in the URL. In PHP, sessions can keep track of authenticated in users. They are an essential building block in today’s websites with big communities and a lot of user activity. Without sessions, everyone would be an anonymous visitor. In system terms, PHP sessions are little files, stored on the server’s disk. But on high traffic sites, the disk I/O involved, and not being able to share sessions between multiple web servers make this default system far from ideal. This is how to enhance PHP session management in terms of performance and share ability. If you have multiple web servers all serving the same site, sessions should be shared among those servers, and not 156 Figure 9. Physical schema In Database lore, a schema object is a logical data storage structure. This possibly originates from the use of the term in the context of Oracle databases. The term â€Å"schema† can have other meanings when talking about non-Oracle databases. Volume 2 Issue 2, February 2013 www.ijsr.net International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), India Online ISSN: 2319-7064 reside on each server’s individual disk. Because once a user gets load-balanced to a different server, the session cannot be found, effectively logging the user out. A common way around this is to use custom session handlers. 5.7 Shopping Card A shopping cart is a software application that typically runs on the computer where your Web site is located (the Web server), and allows your customers to do things such as searching for a product in your store catalog, adding a selected product to a basket, and placing an order for it. The shopping cart â€Å"integrates† with the rest of your Web site. In other words, there are typically links on your Web pages that customers can click on, and which allow them to perform some of the functions described above. For example, many e-commerce Web sites have a â€Å"search† link appearing on every Web page, as part of the navigation area Shopping carts are written in a variety of different programming languages. Some of them provide full access to the â€Å"source code†, thus allowing experienced programmers to make modifications to the system features, some others don’t. Some shopping carts run on Windows Web servers, some on Unix, others on both. In most cases, you can place the shopping cart on your Web server simply by transferring its files there using any FTP [10] software, where FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. For example, our shopping cart software – called Product Card is a collection of files written in a programming language called Classic ASP, and that you host on a Windows server. Experienced programmers can customize the system as they wish as the source code is included. iii. Merchant runs credit card through th e point of sale unit. The amount of the sale is either hand-entered or transmitted by the cash register. iv. Merchant transmits the credit card data and sales amount with a request for authorization of the sale to their acquiring bank. . v. The acquiring bank that processes the transaction, routes the authorization request to the card-issuing bank. The credit card number identifies type of card, issuing bank, and the cardholder’s account. vi. If the cardholder has enough credit in their account to cover the sale, the issuing bank authorizes the transaction and generates an authorization code. This code is sent back to the acquiring bank. vii. The acquiring bank processing the transaction, and then sends the approval or denial code to the merchant’s point of sale unit. Each point of sale device has a separate terminal ID for credit card processors to be able to route data back to that particular unit. viii. A sale draft, or slip, is printed out by the point of sale unit or cash register. The merchant asks the buyer to sign the sale draft, which obligates them to reimburse the cardissuing bank for the amount of the sale. ix. At a later time, probably that night when the store is closing up, the merchant revi ews all the authorizations stored in the point of sale unit against the signed sales drafts. When all the credit card authorizations have been verified to match the actual sales drafts, the merchant will capture, or transmit, the data on each authorized credit card transaction to the acquiring bank for deposit. This is in lieu of depositing the actual signed paper drafts with the bank. x. The acquiring bank performs what is called an interchange for each sales draft, with the appropriate card-issuing bank. The card-issuing bank transfers the amount of the sales draft, minus an interchange fee to the acquiring bank. xi. The acquiring bank then deposits the amount of the all the sales drafts submitted by the merchant, less a discount fee, into the merchant’s bank account. Credit card transaction is shown in Figure 12. Figure 11. Google Checkout shopping cart 5.8 Credit Card Transaction From the information presented in the preceding sections, we can start to piece together what is occurring during a credit card transaction. We know that merchants have a relationship with either an acquiring bank or independent sales organization, through which they have their credit card transactions processed. The section on industry terminology shows us some of the fees involved in this process. Merchants must pay the acquiring bank or ISO a discount fee based on the total amount of the sale. Likewise, the acquiring bank or ISO must pay the card issuer an interchange fee when they process the sales draft from the merchant. Steps involved in a normal credit card transaction: i. Merchant calculates the amount of purchase and asks buyer for payment ii. Buyer presents merchant with a credit card. Figure 12. Credit card transaction 6. Conclusion Electronic commerce or e-commerce is a term for any type of business, or commercial transaction that involves the transfer of information across the Internet. It is currently one of the most important aspects of the Internet to emerge. E157 Volume 2 Issue 2, February 2013 www.ijsr.net International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), India Online ISSN: 2319-7064 commerce has grown tremendously worldwide. In the future e-commerce may become totally mobile based. In Bangladesh E-commerce also become a very powerful business mechanism but Bangladesh will have to overcome the problems with poor network connectivity and electronic payment issues. The problems identified in this Project are: Security problem, Confusing checkout process, Customers can’t find products, Customers can’t touch and fell a product, No sales staff means any chance of up-selling, Language barrier. Regarding the identified problems the following solutions have been proposed: Merchant needs to ensure the platform employs strong encryption for payment processing and customer data retention. E-commerce platform should always have a visible running total of purchases prominently displayed during the customer experience. E-commerce platform must support the ability to present the customer with nested categories as well as a search box. An e-commerce platform should also support the ability to attach multiple pictures to a product catalog page, allowing the consumer to view the product from multiple angles. E-commerce platform needs to be able to associate products with related and complimentary products. The system should allow all tran slation to be done centrally. My M.Sc Engg. in CSE is running at Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET), Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh. My research interest areas are the image processing, Computer Networks, Computer Networks and Data Security, Compiler, Theory of Computations, etc. My several papers Published in International Journals. Muhammad Golam Kibria, Assistant Professor and Head, Department of CSE, University of Information Technology & Sciences, Dhaka, Bangladesh. I completed Masters in Mobile Computing and Communication from the University of Greenwich, London, UK. My research interests are Computer Network Security and image processing, Sensor, Robotics and Wireless Sensor Network. Mohammad Nuruzzaman Bhuiyan is working as a Lecturer at the Department of CSE & IT, University of Information Technology & Sciences (UITS), Baridhara, Dhaka-1212.Bangladesh. I have completed my B.Sc Engg. and M.Sc Engg. in CS from The University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffie ld S10 2TN, UK. My research interest areas are Fundamental of Computer, Web technology, Computer Networks, Computer Networks and Data Security, Theory of Computations, etc. My several papers accepted in International Journals. References [1] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_commerce [2] Tkacz, Ewaryst; Kapczynski, Adrian (2009), Springer, P. 255 [3] Online Today, The Electronic Mall†. CIS/compuserve nostalgia. Http://www.gsbrown.org/compuserve/electronic-mall1984-04/. [4] http://www.marketwatch.com/story/amazon-buysdiaperscom-parent-in-545-mln-deal-2010-11-08/. [5] http://techcrunch.com/2011/03/28/ebay-to-acquire-gsicommerce-for-2-4-billion [6] Miller, Holmes E. And Engemann, Kurt J. (1996); A methodology for managing information-based risk; Information Resources Management Journal; 9:2; 17-24 [7] http://www.e-consultancy.com/news blog/363726/whydo-customers-abandon-the-Checkoutprocess.htmlcopyright 2008 Voloper Creations Inc. 7 [8] http://www.articlesbase.com/e-commercearticles/impacts-of-e-commerce-on-business1882952.html [9] http://www.startupsmart.com.au/mentor/michaelfox/2011-02-03 Authors Profile Md. Akbor Hossain received the B.Sc degrees in CSE University of Information Technology and Sciences (UITS), Baridhara, Dhaka-1212, Bangladesh. I am working as a Lab Demonstrator at the Department of CSE & IT, University of Information Technology & Sciences (UITS), Baridhara, Dhaka-1212, Bangladesh. *Md. Akkas Ali is working as a Lecturer at the Department of CSE & IT, University of Information Technology & Sciences (UITS), Baridhara, Dhaka1212, Bangladesh. I completed my B.Sc Engg. in CSE from Chittagong University of Engineering and Technology (CUET), Chittagong-4349, Bangladesh. Volume 2 Issue 2, February 2013 www.ijsr.net

Peer pressure at school

The school playground is often a mine field of potential social challenges for many children. While some children thrive in the playground, few are immune to at least some difficulties with their peers. This article highlights seven common peer problems your children may face at school. Teasing and bullying Teasing and bullying are unfortunately still common in the school yard. These issues will often not occur until after age seven or eight, and research indicates that at least three out of five sixth grade students experienced or participated in bullying in schools in New South Wales. See links below for more information. Loneliness Making friends is more challenging for some students than for others. Some parents become concerned if their children do not have a large number of friends. However, research indicates that the number of friends your child has is less important than the depth of the friendships. Better to have a narrow but deep pool of friends than a wide and shallow friendship circle. Good friendships take time, attention, and more time to develop. Get your children together with other kids regularly to solidify their relationships. Ostracism Some children will be intentionally left out of activities. There may or may not be teasing and bullying involved. This is a particular challenge, not just in the schoolyard, but also when birthday party invites are being distributed. Missing out can make a child feel awful. If your child is being ostracised, provide support, encourage alternative friendships, or consider involving your child’s teacher. Gender Issues Boys and girls are beginning to learn about one another throughout primary school. Most of the time boys and girls will choose to play separately. But by around age nine, some children are beginning to have an increasing awareness of the opposite sex and may even start to claim boyfriend and girlfriend status. While this can often be harmless, in many instances having a boy or girlfriend can create significant social challenge. Teasing can occur. Children can be unceremoniously dumped when friends uncover the ‘relationship’ and spread rumours about it. Most teachers and parents will typically agree that boyfriend and girlfriend relationships should be discouraged in primary school years. Many parents would prefer to discourage them until at least age 16! ) Being Cool†¦ or Not By around the age of nine, many children have a keen sense of what is cool and what is not. Much of this is controlled by what they are exposed to via the media (through the Internet, television, and movies). If your child has not got the latest media gadget (e. g. ipod or mobile phone), seen the latest movie, or does not know the words t o the hottest song in the country, they may feel excluded and could be teased or ostracised. This does not mean that children should be indulged or that your personal standards should be altered, but sensitive parents will likely take care to discuss such issues with their children and seek mutually agreeable solutions. Poor performance Children who perform poorly in academic (or other pursuits such as sport) may be excluded or find distance between themselves and their peers. This is a challenge that can be overcome using strategies outlined. Marginalising Minorities Children who present obvious differences to the majority of students, such as race, religion, or even socio-economic status, can often suffer socially because of the perceptions that they are not like everyone else. These issues can be particularly salient for girls once they reach age ten to twelve, although both genders can be affected. Skin colour or ethnicity, like religious habits, cannot and should not be changed to accommodate the majority. Instead, tolerance can be promoted by parents and schools to aid in peer relationships. Peer pressure â€Å"He who saves one life it is as though he saves the world†. You make the call, you have control over what you want to do or not do. Do you really want to do it, or are you too scared to stand up for yourself and just say no? You must stand up for yourself, and be confident with your decision. What if you say yes? What if you decide not to stand up for yourself? What if you are not confident? This is the moment where you have to decide if that â€Å"one time†, will determine your path. But you really have to stop and think for a moment. Is what you are doing a complete and true definition of you? Whose life are you really leading? There are two kinds of peer pressure. The Positive kind, and the Negative kind. The positive kind of peer pressure is, being pressured or convinced to do a certain task that you may not have had the confidence to complete or to do yourself. Another kind of positive peer pressure is when friends convince you not to do something that may not have been in your best interest. Negative peer pressure is just what it sounds like—It is when Peers try to make you think that they know what is best for you. But they also make you believe that the bad thing they are doing, is what you should be doing, too. They try to direct you down a path, which is not the correct one. They push for you to have JUST ONE drink. To smoke JUST ONE cigarette†¦. But, the thing that you can do to save yourself is not always the easiest thing to do– saying NO. But just saying no may or may not be the end of the problem. What it means is that you have to be certain and confident with your choice, and have the inner strength to know that you are doing the right thing. Being accepted by people who want you to be a follower, and to go down what may be the wrong path, is being accepted or thinking that you will be accepted by people who are not really your friends. Many people forget what the true definition of friend is. Peer pressure, is something that is commonly used on teens. Peer pressure is used, both in positive and negative ways, unfortunately it's used more often in negative ways. Because of this, I feel that peer pressure is more harmful than beneficial. Peer pressure can be a very powerful tool against teens. It can be used to onvince peers to drink, smoke, steal and many other things. Too many times teenagers end up in jail, pregnant, or in some other kind of trouble because of something they were pressured into doing. They do things they have never done before like; lying to their parents, drinking alcohol, smoking, and sometimes illegal things. They do all these risky things because they have been pressured into doing what is â€Å"co ol†. It can be very hard to stand up for yourself, as a teen trying to fit in, especially when your being ganged up on by your peers to do something you wouldn't normally do. Peer pressure can also be used by teens to convince other teens to go to church, not party, or hang with the wrong crowd. Although this kinda of peer pressure is rarely used, it's very beneficial. Sometimes when one teen see's another going down the wrong path and making bad decisions, they try to pressure them into doing the right thing. Teens often tell each other to â€Å"be safe† when their; having parties, drinking, or putting themselves into any situation that they could get into trouble. Although this is positive peer pressure, it's normally not as powerful or convincing as negative peer pressure because it implies that what that teen is doing, is okay or safe. Peer pressure is a very diverse tool, that can be used for good and bad, but overall it's a more powerful tool when used in a negative way. Because of this and the fact that negative peer pressure is used more often, I believe that peer pressure can be, but is not, more beneficial than harmful. Peer pressure is the influence of a peer group to an individual, causing them to change their attitudes, values and behaviour. It refers to any individual who is being persuaded in doing something that is against their judgment but does not have the courage to stand their ground and do the right thing. It weakens the sense of an individual because of the saying â€Å"everybody is going to do it† which makes them think that such thing is correct. It causes the youth to strive for social acceptance which makes and individual do something he/she is not comfortable of doing. Peer pressure is most commonly associated with the youth, especially the students, because they spend most of their day in school with their friends and classmates. Although peer pressure does not necessarily have to be negative, it also has some positive sides. It can make a student strive for academic success because of their peers or it can improve the study habits of students. The study habits of students are highly affected by peer pressure. Study habits are the approach on how school works are done and how students budget their time in doing tasks. It is crucial to the performance of students but also easily affected by peer pressure. It may cause some positive or negative effects. Peers may influence their classmates to study or not. Students also study together.

The Defence Mechanisms of the Lungs With Relation to Pulmonary Anatomy †Nursing Research Paper

The Defence Mechanisms of the Lungs With Relation to Pulmonary Anatomy – Nursing Research Paper Free Online Research Papers The Defence Mechanisms of the Lungs With Relation to Pulmonary Anatomy Nursing Research Paper The pathway taken by air during inhalation: During inhalation, air enters the nasal cavities via the nostrils, and also into the mouth during forced inhalation. It then passes through the nasopharynx, followed by the oropharynx. Air passes deeper into the thorax via the trachea, which then bifurcates to give the left and right primary bronchi. On entering the lungs, these become intrapulmonary bronchi, which immediately branch to give rise to the lobar (secondary) bronchi. Since the left lung is divided into two lobes, whereas the right lung is divided into three lobes, the right bronchus thus divides into three lobar bronchial branches, and the left into two bronchial branches, with each branch supplying one lobe. The left lung is further divided into eight bronchopulmonary segments, and the right lung, into ten such segments. Thus, in the right lung the lobar bronchi divide to give rise to ten segmental bronchi (tertiary bronchi), while left lobar bronchi give rise to eight segmental bronchi. The segments divide to give pulmonary lobules; each lobule is supplied by a bronchiole. Pulmonary acini are smaller units of structure th at make up the lobules. Each acinus derives it air supply from a terminal bronchiole. As of yet, no gaseous exchange has occurred. Thus, the passageways mentioned above are referred to as the conducting portion of the lung. Instead, the air is conditioned. This consists of warming, moistening and removing particulate matter. Only at the 17th division of the trachea does gaseous exchange commence. It first occurs at the respiratory bronchioles that arise from each terminal bronchiole, which will in turn give off alveoli. Thus, the smallest functional unit of the lung is the respiratory bronchiole unit, which consists of a respiratory bronchiole and the alveoli it supplies. Each alveolus is confluent with a respiratory bronchiole by means of an alveolar duct and an alveolar sac. Defence Mechanisms of the Nasal Cavities: The vestibule communicates anteriorly with the external environment. It contains hairs that filter out the largest-sized particulate matter before it is carried in the airstream to the rest of the cavity. The next segment of the cavity, the respiratory segment, is lined by ciliated, pseudostratified columnar epithelium. It possesses a smooth medial wall called the nasal septum; however, the lateral walls are thrown into folds by the presence of three shelf-like, bony projections called turbinates or conchae. These increase the surface area as well as cause turbulence in airflow to allow more effective conditioning of inspired air. The airstream is broken into eddies, and so matter suspended in the airstream is thrown out of the stream and adheres to the mucus-covered walls of the nasal cavity. It is the goblets cells dispersed between the ciliated cells that secrete mucin. Mucin later forms the mucus that traps debris. The cilia in turn provide a coordinated sweeping motion towards t he pharynx, where the mucus is swallowed. The lamina propria of the respiratory segment has a rich vascular network that includes a complex set of capillary loops. Furthermore, the turbinates increase the total surface area; this arrangement allows the air to be warmed rapidly, so as not to compromise core body temperature. These same vessels become engorged and leaky during allergic reactions or viral infections e.g. the common cold. The lamina propria then becomes distended with fluid, resulting in marked swelling of the mucous membrane with a consequent restriction of the air passage. This makes breathing difficult. Part of the dome of each nasal cavity, and to a lesser extent, the contiguous lateral and medial nasal walls, form the olfactory segment that contain olfactory mucosa. The main constituent of this layer is the olfactory cell. It is a bipolar ciliated neuron that possesses receptors from which the sensation of smell is derived. Over the millennia, man has evolved to dislike odours resembling that of rotting flesh, which possesses micro-organisms and viruses that are harmful not only to the pulmonary system, but to the entire body as well. Defence Mechanisms of the Pharynx: The sub-epithelial tissue of the posterior wall of the nasopharynx possesses diffuse lymphatic tissue. Furthermore, lymphatic nodules are concentrated in the adenoids (pharyngeal tonsils) in the roof of the pharynx, and tonsils (palatine tonsils) on either side of the pharynx. These structures are strategically located to allow the nodule cells to intercept and react with foreign antigens and then travel to regional lymph nodes, where they undergo proliferation and differentiation. Progeny of theses cells return to the lamina propria as effector B and T lymphocytes, as plasma cells, and as memory cells. Respiratory tract nodules also have large numbers of eosinophils as compared to other nodules. This is most visible in times of chronic tonsil inflammation and hypersensitivity (allergic) reactions. Defence Mechanisms of the remainder of the conduction pathway: The larynx shows numerous adaptations to air conduction. The luminal surface of the vocal cords of the larynx is covered with squamous epithelium. This serves to protect the inner layer of the larynx, the mucosa, from abrasion by the rapidly moving airstream. The rest of the larynx is covered by the ciliated epithelium characteristic of the respiratory system, as are the trachea, bronchi, and larger bronchioles. However, the main adaptation at this level is the presence of an epiglottis. The epiglottis is the valve-like flap of cartilage lying behind the tongue and in front of the entrance to the larynx. At rest, the epiglottis is upright and allows air to pass through the larynx and into the rest of the respiratory system. During swallowing, it folds back to cover the entrance to the larynx, preventing food and drink from entering the windpipe. If both the oesophagus and the larynx were open when a person swallowed, air could enter the stomach and food could enter the lungs. When fo od enters the larynx, the airways are blocked, and we start to choke. The epiglottis works with the larynx to act as a lid every time we swallow. The larynx draws upward and forward to close the windpipe. This keeps solid food and liquid out of the respiratory tract. At the end of each swallow, the epiglottis moves up again, the larynx returns to rest, and the flow of air into the windpipe continues. Cough, Sneeze and Gag Reflexes: The function of both the cough reflex and the sneeze reflex is to dislodge foreign matter or irritating material from respiratory passages. The bronchi and the trachea contain sensory receptors that are sensitive to foreign particles and irritating substances. It is also thought that the upper gastrointestinal tract possesses cough receptors. The cough reflex is initiated with the sensory receptors detect these substances and initiate action potentials that pass along the afferent vagus nerves to the medulla oblongata, where a poorly defined cough centre is located. The movements resulting in a cough occur as follows: about 2.5 litres of air are inspired. The epiglottis closes, and the vestibular folds and vocal cords close tightly to trap the inspired air in the lung as a result of stimulation by efferent neurons. The abdominal muscles contract to force the abdominal contents up against the diaphragm, and the muscles of expiration contract forcefully. As a consequence, the immense p ressures are developed in the lungs that may reach up to 100 mm Hg. The vestibular folds, the vocal cords, and the epiglottis then open suddenly, causing air to rush out of the lungs at a high velocity, carrying foreign particles with it. The sneeze reflex is similar to the cough reflex, but it differs in several ways. The source of irritation that initiates the sneeze reflex is in the nasal passages instead of in the trachea and bronchi, and the action potentials are conducted along the afferent trigeminal nerves to a different centre in the medulla. During the sneeze reflex the uvula and the soft palate are depressed so the air is directed primarily through the nasal passages, although a considerable amount passes through the oral cavity. The rapidly flowing air dislodges particulate matter from the nasal passages and propels it a considerable distance from the nose. The gag reflex is important for removing foreign bodies from the pharynx and oral cavity. The normal gag reflex is a mass contraction of both sides of the posterior oral and pharyngeal musculature. The contractions of the pharyngeal musculature on the same side as the site of stimulus is called the direct response, while the contractions of the other side are called the consensual response. Defence mechanisms of the Alveoli: The alveoli possess numerous macrophages that pass with ease between alveolar cells. They are unusual in that they function in both the connective tissue of the septum and in the air spaces of the alveoli. In the air spaces, they are referred to as dust cells, because they scavenge the surface to remove inhaled particulate matter. They also phagocytise erythrocytes that may enter the alveoli in heart failure. Some engorged macrophages pass up the bronchial tree in the mucus and are disposed of by swallowing or expectoration when they reach the pharynx. Other macrophages return to or remain in the septal connective tissue, where, filled with accumulated phagocytised material, they may stay for much of an individual’s life. Finally, they phagocytose infectious microbes such as tubercle bacilli. These bacilli are not digested by the macrophage, so other infections or conditions that damage alveolar macrophages can cause the release of tubercle bacilli and recurrent tuberculosis. Diseases of the pulmonary system: Smoking greatly reduces the effectiveness of pulmonary defence. First, smoking reduces coughing in response to smoke, which is why they can smoke without continuously coughing, and second, smoking effects the rate at which the lungs cilia beat. In acute (short term) cases of exposure to smoke, cilia are paralysed temporarily. In the long run, the cilia will be destroyed permenantly. Furthermore, smoke contains irritants, namely tar, that stimuklates mucus secretion in the larger bronchioles by goblet cells. The resultant stagnation produced at that point in long-term smokers means that the lungs are very susceptible to recurrent infection, particularly pneumonia. To eliminate the mucus, such people develop smoker’s cough, which is so violent it can tear parts of the respiratory vessels and burst numerous alveoli. Blod will often be present in the sputum, and the damaged tissue is replaced by scar tissue. The resulting emphysema is further complicated by the fact that alveolar macrophages secrete proteases and elastases that digest the elastin surrounding alveolar sacs and allow these cells to reach rapidlt to the sites of infection. The reduction in compiance is dueto the fact that alveolar air cannot be replaced as efficiently as before without the recoil provided by elastic tissue. Asthma is an inflammatory disease of the airways characterised by wheezing, swelling, excess fluid build-up and mucus plug formation. The major step in the inflammatory process is exposure to these allergens or triggers. In the first exposure to the harmless allergen, specific B-lymphocytes recognises an antigen of the allergen, and so it divides rapidly by clonal expansion to produce plasma cells and memory cells. The plasma cells, in turn, produce IgE immunoglobulins. Mast cells and basophils in the lungs have special IgE receptor sites on their surfaces to which the IgE molecules attach. These cells are now sensitised to that allergen. On the next exposure to the allergen, the attached IgE antibody comes in contact with the allergen it was designed specifically to recognize, and, and the mast cells begin to degranulate. The released chemicals attract memory cells. Secretion of more IgE by the proliferating memory cells stimulates the release of several inflammatory-response mediat ors. These chemicals include histamine, leukotrienes, and prostaglandins. They are what cause the symptoms of an allergic reaction. They can stimulate the production of excess amounts of mucus and fluid in the airway, which plug the airway, and also bind to specific receptors on the smooth muscles of the bronchioles, causing severe bronchoconstriction. Bibliography: Jeremy Ward – The respiratory system at a glance P56-64 John Widdicombe Andrew Davies – Respiratory Physiology (second edition) P1-7 Michael Ross – Histology: a text and atlas (third edition) P340-348, 530-556 innerbody.com/text/dige02.html mhhe.com/biosci/ap/seeleyap/resp/reading1.mhtml medsch.wisc.edu/anatomy/bs97/text/p9/gag.htm cancer.ca/ccs/internet/standard/0,3182,3172_367563__langId-en,00.html new-asthma.uk.net/mastcelldegranulationdiagrams.html Research Papers on The Defence Mechanisms of the Lungs With Relation to Pulmonary Anatomy - Nursing Research PaperAnalysis of Ebay Expanding into AsiaBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of SelfGenetic EngineeringPETSTEL analysis of IndiaThe Hockey GameAppeasement Policy Towards the Outbreak of World War 219 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraResearch Process Part OneOpen Architechture a white paperRelationship between Media Coverage and Social and

Concepts and principles of emergency management Essay

Concepts and principles of emergency management - Essay Example In Australia, latest statistics on car accidents seem to indicate that road accidents are increasing in frequency; road deaths associated to such car accidents are also increasing. In 2005, Australia already ranked 7th out of 15 developed nations for road deaths per 100 million vehicle kilometres travelled (Fallah, 2007). Emergencies -- are â€Å"incidents that threaten public safety, health and welfare (Department of Environmental Management, n.d, p. 1). Emergencies may also vary in size, location, causes, and effects; but regardless of differences in such elements, they all register with various environmental effects. They are also defined by the Emergency Management Institute (n.d) as unexpected incidents or events which endanger lives or property, consequently requiring urgent and routine responses through community resources and procedures. Examples include: road-blocking landslides, long power outages, forest fires, outbreaks of diseases, and heat waves (Central Coast Center Independent Living, n.d). There were two slides in Australia from 1939 to 2007; 28 were killed and about 101 individuals were affected (CRED, 2007). There were 28 wild fires from 1939 to 2007 and this caused the death of about 300 individuals and damages up to 1.2 million US dollars (CRED, 2007). There was one epidemic fro m 1939 to 2007. No deaths and no damages were reported but 6 people were affected (CRED, 2007). Disasters are defined by Emergency Management Australia (2004, p. ix) as â€Å"a condition or situation of significant destruction, disruption and/or distress to a community†. The United Nations (1992) define a disaster as â€Å"a serious disruption of the functioning of society, causing widespread human, material, or environmental losses which exceed the ability of affected society to cope using its own resources† (UN Glossary, 1992).

Communiction Theories Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 4

Communiction Theories - Essay Example For example, the phrase â€Å"Where are you going†, without the question mark will be read flatly whereas, when written in the form, â€Å"Where are you going?†; there is an indication that the speaker should have a falling pitch. Moreover, the importance of punctuation marks are seen in the meanings relayed in the sentences. For instance, â€Å"They are Grants sisters† and â€Å"They are Grant’s sisters† imply different meanings where the former presents two probable corrections. First, it may be considered that the writer missed a word and can be corrected as â€Å"They are the Grants sisters† meaning, they are the sisters from the Grants family. Secondly, it could be edited to form the second sentence with the apostrophe, distinctly stating that they are the sisters of Grant. It is vital not only to place the punctuation marks on the right places but also to use the correct punctuation mark because they can change the tone of a sentence which consequently will change the meaning of the sentence. â€Å"You are good.†, is a statement. â€Å"You are good!†, indicates an excited feeling towards the person being appreciated. â€Å"You are good?†, poses a challeng ing tone to the person being referred to regarding goodness. These few examples show how punctuation marks affect communication so much that students and professionals alike are drawn to the study of